by Abiya Matthew ole Misiko
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The outcome of this of work wouldn't have been possible without help and support from individuals. I am very grateful to my sponsor for the immense and immeasurable support given for my Diploma in Wildlife Management.
I would like to acknowledge Ms. Angela Knight for her tirelessly support, heartening and caring of me whilst pursuing my studies. She has played a great role in making my life easy and enjoyable at all time in Mweka. Her regular visitation while at college was a measure and indicator of affection and caring. I owe you heaps and wish you a long-lasting life full of joy.
My gratitude and sincere thanks go to my supervisor, Ms. Alodia Machumu for her unlimited support during all the stages of my thesis. She has been my mentor and also shared with me her vast knowledge and experience of tourism which inspired me in this research. I highly appreciate her kindness and generous support. May the almighty God bless her for intellectual guidance one which is very rare
Special thanks to my Family, Mr. and Mrs. Matthew Ole Misiko for their immense support of my studies at college of African wildlife management ,Mweka and for the love and encouragement accorded to me to aim higher academically, without their parental care and wisdom, the publication of this paper would not have been easy. I am indebted to Ms. Martha Meresso for her immense care and support at all time and she never ever spared any effort to help me whenever I needed her help and shared her vast knowledge with me during the writing of this thesis.
My words cannot help me to express my most sincere thanks to Daudi Mssemmaa for editing of this thesis and Mr.Donatus Gadiye who assisted me far beyond expectations. He accommodated and fed me. Without his support, my work would have become a much harder endeavor.
I'd also like to thank my sisters, Theresia and Monica.
Lastly I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Edward Ngobei whom we worked together during the design and implementation of this study and all those colleagues who in one way or the other supported me in the completion of this paper.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION i
APPROVAL ii
ACKNOLEDGEMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
FIGURES, TABLES, PLATES AND APPENDICES vii
DEFINITION OF TERMS viii
LIST OF ACRONYMS ix
ABSTRACT x
CHAPTER ONE 1
1.0. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background information 1
1.2 Tourism and local residents in NCA 1
1.3 Problem Statement and Justification 3
1.4 Objectives 3
1.4.1 General objectives of the study 3
1.4.2 Specific objectives 4
1.5 Hypothesis 4
1.6 Main research questions 4
1.8 Research output/ expected 4
CHAPTER TWO 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Theoretical literature review 5
2:2 Definition and concept of tourism 5
2.3 National Tourism Policy and Strategies 6
CHAPTER THREE 8
3.0 METHODOLOGY 8
3.1 Study area description 8
3.1.2 Vegetation 8
3.1.3 Climate 9
3.1.4 Fauna 9
3.1.5 Cultural Heritage 9
3.1.6 Local Human Population 9
3.2 Data collection methods 10
3.2.1 Selection of the study area 10
3.2.2 Questionnaires 10
3.2.3 Direct Observation 11
3.2.4 Key informant 11
3.2.5 Focus group discussions 12
3.2.6 Literature review 12
3.2.7 Data analysis 12
CHAPTER FOUR 13
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 13
4.1. RESULTS 13
4.1.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents 13
4.1.2 Socio-economic activity 15
4.1.3 Major tourism practices in the study areas 15
4.1.4 Local community participation in various tourism practices in the study area 17
4.1.5 Benefits of tourism to the local community 18
4.1.6 Impacts of tourism to the local community 19
4.1.7 Negative impacts of tourism to the local community in the study areas 20
4.2 DISCUSSION 22
4.2.1 Demographic characteristics of local community in the study area 22
4.2.2 Socio-economic status of local community 23
4.2.3 Major types of tourism practices 23
4.2.4 Wildlife-related tourism and photographing 23
4.2.5 Walking safaris 24
4.3 Local community participation in various tourism practices 24
4.3.1 Cultural bomas 24
4.3.2 Hiring donkeys and guiding tourists on walking safaris 27
4.3.3 Security guards 27
4.3.4 Pastoral Council and Local Services 28
4.4 IMPACTS OF TOURISM TO THE LOCAL COMMUNITY 29
4.4.1 Positive impacts of tourism 29
4.4.2 Provision of markets for the local products 29
4.4.3 Supports education for destitute families through PC 30
4.4.4 Employment opportunities 30
4.4.5 Revenue collection from tented and mobile camps in the villages land 30
4.4.6 Development of social services 31
4.5 Negative impacts of tourism to the local community 32
4.5.1 Restriction of Maasai pastoralist on uses some parts of NCA for livestock grazing, spiritual and ritual functions. 32
4.5.2 Conflicts between local residents and lodge owners 32
4.5.3 Change of local community behaviors 33
4.5.4 Changes in consumption 33
4.5.5 Prostitution with allied member of the Cultural bomas 34
4.5.6 Laziness and begging behaviors 34
4.6 CHALLENGES FACING TOURISM 35
4.6.1 Poor communication skills 35
4.6.2 Market Competition 36
4.6.3 Poor involvement of local community in tourism 36
4.7 Perceptions of the local community towards tourism 37
4.7.1 Economic dependency on tourism 37
4.7.2 Personal benefits of tourism 38
4.7.3 Respondent Demographics 38
4.7.4 Community attachment on tourism 38
4.7.5 Opinion of local community towards tourism and NCA management 39
CHAPTER FIVE 40
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 40
5.1 CONCLUSION 40
5.2 RECCOMMENDATIONS 42
6.0 REFERENCES 44
7.0 APPENDICES 46
FIGURES, TABLES, PLATES AND APPENDICES
FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of Ngorongoro Conservation Area and its surrounding 10
Figure 2: shows the education level of the respondent in the study area 14
Figure 3: discloses the major social-economic activities practiced in the study area 15
Figure 4: Discloses the participation of local people in tourism activities 17
Figure 5: Cultural boma organizational structure 26
Figure 6: Liaison between the NCAA and the Local residents 29
Figure 7: shows the three important elements of co-interaction which will enhance the long-term success of sustainable tourism. 41
TABLES
Table 1 disclosing the demographic characteristics of respondents 13
Table 2: discloses the major types of tourism activities conducted in the area 16
Table 3 discloses the benefits of tourism to the local community 19
Table 4 disclosing the positive impacts of tourism to local community in the study area 20
Table 5 shows the negative impacts of tourism to the local community in the study area 21
PLATES
Plate 1: A walk safari guided by a Maasai warrior, Field photo, 2009 24
Plate 2: Maasai gathering at the cultural boma, Field photo, 2009 24
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Other results 46
Appendix 2: Field photos 49
Appendix 3: Questionnaire for local communities 50
DEFINITION OF TERMS
The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited (WTO, 1994)
Community is a social organization that is based on shared values and beliefs by the individuals in the society, direct and many-sided relations between individuals and practice of reciprocity (Barrows & Murphree, 1999)
Conservation is the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield greatest sustainable benefits to the present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the need and the aspiration of the future generation (Bell, 1984)
Livelihood can be defined as strategies adopted by people in a particular environmental setting to earn their daily living. It comprises the capabilities assets both materials and social resources and activities required for means of living (URT, 2005)
LIST OF ACRONYMS
CB Cultural Bomas
CCA Conservation Cooperation Africa
ECF East Cost Fever
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
GDP Gross Domestic Product
PC Pastoralist Council
NCA Ngorongoro Conservation Authority
NWA Northern Wildlife Areas
NCAA Ngorongoro Conservation Authority Areas
SNP Serengeti National Park
WTO World Tourism Organization
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
FGD Focus Group Discussion
WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas
WTO World Tourism Organization
ABSTRACT
The NCA is among the leading tourist destination areas in the northern wildlife circuits of Tanzania, mainly because of the rich wildlife resources it upholds and its spectacular scenic beauty. Tourism in the NCA has provided employment opportunities to local communities and it is a significant source of foreign exchange for NCA and the country at large. The research data were collected in Oloirobi, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka villages in May, 2009.
The overall objective was to assess the perceptions of local community towards tourism in NCA. A sample size of 90 households' was interviewed. However, the information was solicited using a various methods; this includes questionnaire, focus group discussion, Key informant, observations and literature reviews. Qualitative data was analyzed by using pie and graph charts and tables while inferential statistics such Chi-square test was used to test the significance of the impact of tourism to local community livelihoods.
The research discloses that, the major socio-economic activity in the area is pastoralism while others are engaged in both tourism and pastoralism especially those with a low number of livestock and tourism. It can be concluded that residents demographic (young men and women) are generally positive to tourism since they are the most group who is involved in various tourism activities like walking safaris and cultural performances. In contrast, perceived positive tourism impacts, cultural tourism, is positively influence local residents' perceptions of tourism in NCA. The socio-economic reasons for tourism revealed by the attitudes of local residents are evident. In spite of that, local residents are deeply concerned about their rights in decision-making and restrictions given by NCA from using some areas for grazing and traditional rituals. NCA managers and planners should be aware that tourism activities could evoke strong emotional responses of some groups of local residents. To
avoid conflicts, local residents should be actively involved in the decision making process of tourism.
Key words; tourism, local people, perceptions
Author; Ole Misiko, A. Mathew
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
The travel and tourism industry is one of the world's largest and is a major employer. This industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the world economy and has a significant impact on all sectors of the economy. Tourism produces 4.4% of the world's GDP, and employs around 200 million people globally. It can also help the sustainable management of protected areas, as a market-based alternative catering to the growing number of travelers trying to find, understand and enjoy a natural environment. Tourism can support the protection of natural resources, as local residents realize the value of their asset and want to preserve it (http://www.google.com, 2009).
The Tanzanian tourism industry is based mainly on wildlife attractions. Tourism activities are largely concentrated in the Northern Wildlife Areas (NWA), the city of Dar es Salaam and the historic isle of Zanzibar. Tourism in Tanzania has been growing yearly and is fast becoming one of the major sources of foreign exchange in the country. The sector directly accounts for about 16% of the GDP and nearly 25% of total exports earnings. In 2005 Tanzania earned about $822 million from 612 million tourists (Kayera et al 1996).
1.2 Tourism and local residents in NCA
NCA has a unique protected area status in Tanzania as a "multiple land use" zone. Unlike national parks, where human settlement and consumptive resource uses are prohibited, the NCA is home to some 52,000 residents, the vast majority of who are the pastoral Maasai peoples, together with roughly 300,000 head of cattle, sheep, and goats. These features combined to warrant the NCA's listing as a World Heritage Site in 1979 and as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1981 (MNRT, NCAA 2001).
Tourism has emerged as a major growth industry in many national economies, and NCA is no exception. This means that an increasing proportion of the world's population is dependent upon the continuing growth of tourism for employment and income. As a consequence of this growth, many local communities have to cope with the increased intensity of tourism and its impacts, both positive and negative. In NCA, tourism is the largest single source of foreign exchange earnings (www.tourisminfo.govt.nz).
There are many different types of tourism and consequently a wide variety of tourists and reasons for travel. One thing for certain is that a significant proportion of tourism involves some degree of resident-visitor interaction. Interaction can bring about both positive and negative impacts, which might affect the social sustainability of tourism in a particular destination. The challenge therefore is to maintain the long-term sustainability of the tourism industry and subsequently derive the economic benefits. Resident irritability undoubtedly challenges long-term sustainability and thus, mitigates economic success (World Tourism Organization, 1994).
Inevitably, the visitor to the NCA will encounter the resident Maasai, considered to be another tourist attraction. The Maasai are frequently seen taking their herds of cattle down to the Crater floor to drink water, grazing animals on the plains and in the highlands, and walking along the NCA's main roads. Maasai bomas (settlements) can be seen scattered throughout the highlands. There are 16 Maasai villages contained within six wards in the NCA. Most visitors do not visit these villages however. Instead, they may stop in at one of three "cultural bomas". These bomas provide an official interface between the tourist and the resident Maasai. The bomas are constructed to look like typical Maasai homesteads. Here, the visitor can meet Maasai warriors and women, watch them perform traditional dances, tour a typical hut made from sticks and cow dung, learn about the Maasai way of life and culture, take pictures, and purchase Maasai handicrafts (Swanson, 2007).
Tourism can develop and grow when local residents have a positive attitude toward it and when they see their role in the process of the tourism development. At the point when a tourism destination is born, the quality of the life of the local residents goes through radical changes, which are not necessarily negative. It is true that there can be more people around, traffic can become difficult, crime rates can increase, and the pollution of all environment resources is possible. Andriotis (2005) urged that, tourism brings changes that affect traditional way of life, family relations, the nature of the local structures functioning and many unpredictable problems.
Therefore, tourism has both negative and positive impacts to the host country. These are apparent whenever different cultures come into contact, and the socio-cultural impacts differ depending on tradition, norms and standards within each host society.
1.3 Problem Statement and Justification
There is an increasingly growing concern that tourism development is leading to destinations losing their cultural identity by catering for the perceived needs of tourists. Although they take longer to appear, the cultural consequences of tourist activity have the potential to be much more damaging in the long term than environmental or social effects. In many countries, tourists are not sensitive to local customs, traditions and standards. Offence is given without intent, as tourists are short-stay visitors carrying with them their own cultural norms and behavioral patterns. They are usually unwilling to change these norms for a temporary stay and may be unaware that these norms are offensive to the host community.
Various research on tourism has been done in NCA centered mainly around the benefits which local communities obtain from tourism; however, less information exists about the perceptions of local people towards tourism in NCA. Therefore there is a need to carry out research on how the local people perceive tourism activities so as to enhance a sustainable tourism in the future. Also, the assessment of local people's perceptions of tourism will form an integral part of the conservation process and it will be an important stride before new conservation actions are implemented.
This study will contribute to the understanding of local residents' perceptions of, and attitudes towards tourism that has to be assessed continually to ensure that action is taken in good time and through such action the residents will be willing partners in the development process. Awareness of residents' perceptions of tourism and its impacts will help the NCA to identify real concerns and issues in order for appropriate policies and action to take place, optimizing the benefits and minimizing the problems.
1.4 Objectives
1.4.1 General objectives of the study
The overall objective of this study is to assess local community perceptions towards tourism in Ngorongoro Conservation Area.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
∑ To identify various types of tourism practices in Ngorongoro Conservation Area.
∑ To assess the participation of local people in tourism activities in Ngorongoro Conservation Area.
∑ To identify the impacts of tourism to the local people in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area.
∑ To identify the benefits of tourism to the local people in Ngorongoro Conservation Area.
1.5 Hypothesis
∑ Ho: Local people have negative perceptions towards tourism in Ngoro Conservation Area
∑ Ho: Local people have positive perceptions towards tourism in Ngorongoro Conservation Area
1.6 Main research questions
∑ What are the most common types of tourism practices in Ngorongoro Conservation Area?
∑ Are the local communities involved in tourism activities?
∑ What benefits do they receive?
∑ What are the impacts of tourism to the socio-cultural-lifestyle of the local community in Ngorongoro Conservation Area?
1.8 Research output/ expected
∑ The research will provide baseline information which will contribute to the understanding of local residents' perceptions of, and attitudes towards tourism in Ngorongoro Conservation Area and ways forward to develop a sustainable tourism that will be compatible with local people.
∑ A dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Diploma in Wildlife Management at CAWM-Mweka
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical literature review
2:2 Definition and concept of tourism
Tourism is traveling for predominantly recreational or leisure purposes or the provision of services to support this leisure travel. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited" (http://www.sidestore.com/).
Hunziker and Krapf, in 1941, defined tourism as "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity" (http://www.sidestore.com/).
Tourism has become a deadly mix for indigenous peoples. Tourism's impact on indigenous peoples' way of life and on their control of and access to their resources and environment has become more pronounced with globalization of the world economy. Most southern African governments hope that tourism will contribute to national economic growth and to local development in marginalized areas. They want to promote the involvement of local people and disadvantaged communities in the tourism industry (WCPA, 2002).
Tourism has always been considered a vital medium for widening the scope of human interests. It contributes positively to the maturing and promotion of cultural heritage of nations. It, therefore, serves indirectly to improve individual cultural understanding of both residents and foreigners while at the same time contributing to gross national products. At the local level domestic tourism creates understanding of attractions, thereby contributing to sustainable development. Therefore, well recognized benefits of tourism are usually reason advanced or government supported. The benefits are usually felt at two levels. At the first level, tourism is expected to foster economic growth foreign exchange earnings and an increase in the state revenue. At a second level, improvement in population well being in areas of job creation, brings changes in revenue distribution and the balance of regional development.
In this respect tourism is described as an industry though it has no single production character tics or defined operational parameter. Tourism is also multi-faceted and its economic expansion cannot occur without inputs of social, cultural and environmental nature (Andriotis, 2005).
Tourism can develop and grow when local residents have a positive attitude toward it and when they see their role in the process of the tourism development. At the point when a tourism destination is born, the quality of the life of the local residents goes through radical changes, which are not necessarily negative. It is true that there can be more people around, traffic can become difficult, crime rates can increase, and the pollution of all environment resources is possible. Andriotis (2005) urged that tourism brings changes that affect the traditional way of life, family relations, the nature of the local structures functioning and many unpredictable problems.
It should be noted, however, that ecotourism prefers to use local resources and expertise, which in turn translates into environmentally sensitive patterns and local participation in the travel industry. Its emphasis on local resources and employment makes it attractive to developing countries, which though rich in natural resources are afflicted with rural poverty and lack of export earnings (Peter, 2008).
2.3 National Tourism Policy and Strategies
The first National Tourism Policy was adopted in 1991 to provide the overall objectives and strategies necessary to ensure sustainable tourism development in the country. Nearly a decade later, there have been considerable changes on the political, economic and social fronts within the country, which raised the need for regular review of the policy. The thrust of these changes have been towards stimulating efforts to expand the private sector, in tandem with the disengagement of the Government from the sole ownership and operation of tourist facilities. Knowing the potentiality of tourism sector, as a strategy for poverty alleviation, the National Tourism Policy of Tanzania was reviewed in 1999 to cope with the dynamism of the tourism industry.
The overall objective of the policy is to assist in efforts to promote the economy and livelihood of the people, essentially poverty alleviation through encouraging the development of sustainable and quality tourism that is culturally and socially acceptable, ecologically friendly, environmentally sustainable and economically viable. It is also sought to market Tanzania as favoured tourist destination for touring and adventure in a country renowned for its cultural diversity and numerous beaches (URT, 2005).
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study area description
The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) is roughly 8,300km_. It was established in 1959 after being excised from the newly created Serengeti National Park (SNP). The NCA was designated as a "conservation area" under the premise that it would serve as a multiple land use area for both the resident and migratory wildlife and the native residents who had been evicted from the surrounding preserved areas of the SNP.
Now commonly referred to as the "Eighth Wonder of the World" Ngorongoro Crater and its surrounding conservation area are deemed of great importance by many different people, for a variety of diverse reasons being the only place in Africa and probably in the world where human beings and wildlife co-exist in harmony.
The amazing features of Ngorongoro Conservation Area, both wildlife and anthropogenic, have brought great accolades to this "Eighth Wonder of the World." In 1978 it was designated a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Three years later, in 1981, the Conservation Area was proclaimed a Biosphere Reserve by the same organization. Though the site has been recognized for its cultural attributes, the management of the caldera and its surrounding area has not necessarily worked to preserve both wildlife and local Maasai residents.
An area such as this requires a plan which recognizes and respects the harmony that can exist between pastoralists and wildlife, much as it had years before conservationists stepped foot on the land. Ngorongoro has a colorful human history involving the Maasai, other local African tribes, colonialists, and conservationists. Many visitors and students of wildlife do not know the human history of Ngorongoro caldera, yet further studies will reveal that much of the reason that such great wildlife remains in East Africa is because of the native Maasai (Swanson 2007).
3.1.2 Vegetation
The borders of the NCA encompass a great variety of ecosystems including montane forest, swamp, marsh, dry forest, as well as long and short grasslands that are extensions of the Maasai Mara and Serengeti ecosystems The crater floor is mainly open grassy plains with alternating fresh and brackish water lakes, swamps and two patches of Acacia woodland; Lerai Forest, comprising dominant tree species Acacia xanthophloea and Rauvolfia caffra; and Laiyanai Forest with Cassipourea malosana, Albizia gummifera, and Acacia lahai.
3.1.3 Climate
Because of the great amplitude in relief and the dynamics of air masses, there is a great variation in the climate of the area. In the highlands, it is generally moist and misty, and temperatures in the semi-arid plains can be as low as 2°C, but can often go up to 35°C. Rainfall is seasonal and follows the altitudinal gradient. Annual precipitation varies from under 500mm on the arid plains in the west, to 1700mm along the forested slopes in the east.
3.1.4 Fauna
There is a large population of avian and wild ungulates in the crater including: Wildebeest, Zebra, Elands, Gazelles, black Rhinoceros at least 20; the Ngorongoro Crater representing perhaps the only viable breeding population left in northern Tanzania.
3.1.5 Cultural Heritage
The NCA has paleontological and archaeological sites over a wide range of dates. The four major sites are: Olduvai Gorge, Laetoli site, Lake Ndutu site, and the Nasera Rock painting. The variety and richness of the fossil remains, including those of early hominids, has made Ngorongoro one of the major areas in the world for research on the evolution of the human species. Olduvai Gorge has produced valuable remains of early hominids including Australopithecus boisei (Zinthanthropus) and Homo habilis as well as fossil bones of many extinct animals. Nearby, at Laetoli, are fossil hominid footprints of Pliocene age.
3.1.6 Local Human Population
NCA is home to some 52,000 residents, the vast majority of who are the pastoral Maasai peoples, together with roughly 300,000 head of cattle, sheep, and goats. These features combined to warrant the NCA's listing as a World Heritage Site in 1979 and as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1981 (MNRT and NCAA 2001).
Figure 1: Map of Ngorongoro Conservation Area and its surrounding
Source: NCAA 2009
3.2 Data collection methods
3.2.1 Selection of the study area
Three (Oloirobi, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka) villages were systematically chosen because of accessibility, time, and the limited resources available for soliciting the necessary information for my thesis. Also the other core reason of choosing the three study areas is because they are intensively used for tourism activities such as cultural bomas, walking safaris e.t.c.
3.2.2 Questionnaires
Primary data about the local people perception towards tourism in NCA were collected through questionnaire. The questionnaire was both close-ended and open-ended questions. A sample size of 30 households in each village was interviewed and made a total number of 90 households for the three villages namely; Oloirobi, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka. The sampling technique was selected in a systematic and random manner. This research was limited to adults of the community who were above 18 years.
The reason was to ensure that their answers and feelings about the questions is due to the fact that they are affected directly by either tourism or tourists activities in the area, which might have caused changes in the community either socially, environmentally or economically.
3.2.3 Direct Observation
Direct observation was applied on different tourist's attraction, traditional way of living as well as the socio-economic activities of local community in the study area. This method provides clue on understanding the motivational barriers that had to be lowered. Observation involved was in accompanying people as they carry out day to day activities.
Direct observation is the process whereby the investigator asks no question to the participants; instead he/she observe the objects or actions in which he/she is interested. It more likely used when the validity of data collected by other methods is in question. The investigator was observing and recording the desired information.
Observation method helps practitioners to learn things that they did not think to ask (Thomas-Slayter et al., 1993 in Byers, 1996). Byers 1996 argues that, direct observation was sometimes more effective than self-report method like surveys and interviews because it easily avoided asking direct questions. This method helps and assists in coming up with the check list of tourist attractions in the area and other tourist facilities.
3.2.4 Key informant
Interview was done to the influential members of the community such as political and spiritual traditional leaders (Ilaigwanak & Iloibonok), village leaders and leaders of the cultural bomas. The communities' leaders are the controllers of all local traditions, cultural and political affairs who have a broad understanding of the community issues, changes, etc. Prior arrangement was done through the leaders of the village to notify the targeted groups in advance. Two key informants were systematically chosen from each village.
This method involved discussion with village's leaders, traditional leaders, hoteliers, primary school teachers, and knowledgeable people in the village. Techniques were used to capture specific information on the socio-economic activities, tourist attractions, benefits of tourism to local community and the attitudes of local community towards tourism in the area. In addition the technique was used to capture information on ways to improve benefits to community livelihoods.
3.2.5 Focus group discussions
This method is economical and provides information needed and thus providing more accurate analysis compared with individual interviews. The discussion with local community between 6-12 people was held in order to solicit the needed information on the perception of local people towards tourism in NCA. This method was used to understand the diversity of perceptions and opinion found in the community.
The discussion included the village members who knew the historical background of tourism in the area and who had a broad understanding on the impacts (both positive and negative) brought by tourism activities.
Semi-structured discussion focusing a target group of people guided through a set of questions on the issues of concern was used. Focus group discussions have an advantage over other interviews, in that people are able to talk in detail about their beliefs and feelings. The researcher was a facilitator in the discussion and ensured that every one present had their say (Kaswamila, 2006).
3.2.6 Literature review
Secondary data were obtained through reviewing relevant textbooks in libraries, conferences and workshops proceedings, newsletters, leaflets, ecological journal, pamphlets, communications and websites. NCAA Officials were orally interviewed for more clarification on issues pertaining tourism and the position of local people in managing tourism in NCA.
3.2.7 Data analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze qualitative data where by tables, charts and graphs were used. Computer excel was used to simplify the analysis of the data. Inferential statistics such Chi-square test was used to test the significance of the impact of tourism to local community livelihoods. The SPSS package version 11.5 was used to simplify this analysis.
Data collected using focus group discussion; direct observation and resource mapping were qualitative in nature. The nature of the data therefore necessitated the use of qualitative data analysis techniques.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. RESULTS
4.1.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents (n=90)
Table 1, disclosed that, on the entire study area, the respondents (56%) interviewed were males followed by females (44%). In terms of age structure, in the entire study areas the majority of the respondents (26%) were on the age category of 36 – 41 and 42-49 years and the least (1%) were aged people of age category over 66 years.
Table 1 disclosing the demographic characteristics of respondents
S/N Village name N Gender Age category
M F 18-25 26-35 36-41 42-49 50-57 58-65 Above 66
1 Oloirobi 30 16 14 5 5 10 8 2 0 0
2 Irkeepusi 30 16 14 4 8 5 7 3 2 2
3 Nainokanoka 30 18 12 4 8 7 8 3 0 0
Total 90 50 40 13 21 23 23 8 2 1
Total in % 100 56 44 14 23 26 26 9 2 1
Source: Field data 2009.
M = Male, F =Female, N= number of the respondents
Figure 2: shows the education level of the respondent in the study area (n=90)
Source: Field data 2009
This figure discloses that, the majority (37%) of the respondents didn't have access to school in the entire study area, whereas (31%) attained primary education, (22%) attained secondary education and (10%) attained college/university levels.
Figure 3: discloses the major social-economic activities practiced in the study area (n=90)
Source: Field data 2009.
4.1.2 Socio-economic activity
The results unveils that 46% of respondents depends on pastoralism for their livelihood, followed by 41% of the respondents who depend both in tourism and pastoralism as a means of livelihood, and lastly 13% of respondents depend directly in tourism activity.
4.1.3 Major tourism practices in the study areas
The majority of respondents (59%) ranked cultural visits as the major activity performed by the preponderance in the entire study area, as it shows in (Fig 1) that (37%) of the respondents did not have access to education and this would have been a driving force for the majority of the respondents to slot in cultural-tourism which can be accessed by the majority of respondents irrespective of their education background and age; both can participate in selling souvenirs and perform cultural dances. Of walking safaris, (18%) of respondents said that walking safaris is common in their villages, especially Nainokanoka and Oloirobi where young men guide tourists in various places. Also (14%) of the respondents said both walking safaris and cultural visits; the reason is that some people engage in both activities. Photographing and wildlife safaris is accounting for (4%). This doesn't authenticate that wildlife and photographing safaris is less practiced in the area, most of these
activities done by professional's guides who are not residents of the area. Therefore, local communities are just intermediaries or last consumers in such activities.
Table 2: discloses the major types of tourism activities conducted in the area (n=90)
S/n Activity Village name Total
Oloirobi (n=) Irkeepusi (n=) Nainokanoka (n=90)
N % N % N % N %
1 Walking safaris 1 3 0 0 15 50 16 18
2 Cultural visits 20 67 26 87 7 23 53 59
3 Photographic safaris 0 0 0 0 4 13 4 4
4 Wildlife safaris 0 0 0 0 4 13 4 4
5 Both walking safaris and cultural visits 9 30 4 13 0 0 13 14
Source: Filed data, 2009
Figure 4: Discloses the participation of local people in tourism activities (n=90)
Source: field data 2009
4.1.4 Local community participation in various tourism practices in the study area
Figure 3, discloses that, (73%) of the respondents at Irkeepusi participate in tourism activities by selling souvenirs and cultural dances (27%), The reason is; Irkeepusi doesn't have many resources compare to other villages and the only tourist facilities found in this village is SOPA Lodge where warriors and women can participate in dancing for the tourists.
(40%) of respondents at Oloirobi cultural boma engage in selling souvenirs, and cultural dances (30%), other tourism activities such walking safari and hiring donkeys (17%) and guarding lodges and tented camps (13%). This village seems to be privileged with so many opportunities, the reason could be the locale of the village along the road to Serengeti and it acts as the stop-over for the tourists' traffic on their way to Serengeti national Park. Also (53%) of respondents in Nainokanoka participate in tourism activities by hiring donkeys for carrying tourists' luggage's to various places of NCA including the famous Oldoinyo Lengai and Lake Natron, this village is privileged to have about 6 tourists facilities including tented and mobile camps where the local residents employed as security guards (10%), cultural dances (23%) and some of them sell souvenirs (13%) when given an order to make traditional jewelries for the tourists tented lodges which are located nearby the village.
4.1.5 Benefits of tourism to the local community
The table 3 unveils that, in entire study areas, tourism provides market for local products (49%), cultural bomas such as Oloirobi have initiated women groups who run small businesses such making traditional jewelry (beading) and sells them to the lodges , while (16%) of the respondents said that tourism provides employment and supports education for destitute families. Currently, NCA is sponsoring 557 students through Pastoral Council in various levels of education and the majority of students sponsored are coming from destitute families. The least (10%) of respondents urged that no benefits of tourism in the study areas but most of respondents who urged this were aged and they have less participation in tourism activities. The tested results show that there is a significant benefit of tourism to the local people (X_=48.44, df=4 and p>0.05)
Table 3 discloses the benefits of tourism to the local community (n=90)
S/N Type of benefit Village names
Oloirobi (n=30) Irkeepusi
(n=30) Nainokanoka
(n=30) Total
N % N % N % N %
1 Support education for poor families through PC 0 0 5 17 9 30 14 16
2 Employment 8 27 1 3 5 17 14 16
3 Provide market for local products 18 60 21 70 5 17 44 49
4 Income from campsite, hiring donkeys and walking safaris 0 0 0 0 10 33 10 11
5 No benefits 4 13 3 10 1 3 9 10
Source: Field data 2009
4.1.6 Impacts of tourism to the local community
In the entire study area (46%) of the respondents said that tourism plays a great role in generating income and it has improved the living standard of the local community. This percentage looks bigger compare to other benefits accrued from tourism; this is because some benefits accrued from tourism go directly to individual pockets. Other benefits includes friendship which bring about sponsorship (16%); employment opportunities (12%), also (13%) of the respondents said all the above are the impacts of tourism. The impacts were tested through SPSS and it shows that there is a significant positive impact of tourism to the local community (__=40.33,df=4 and p>0.05).
Table 4 disclosing the positive impacts of tourism to local community in the study area (n=90)
S/n Positive impacts Villages name
Oloirobi
(n=30) Irkeepusi
(n=30) Nainokanoka (n=30) Total
N % N % N % N %
1 Friendship and sponsorship 6 20 5 17 3 3 14 16
2 Sharing knowledge, learning different cultures 4 13 3 3 4 13 11 12
3 Income generation and improved the living standard 16 53 19 63 7 23 42 46
4 Employment 3 3.3 1 10 7 23 11 12
5 All the above 1 10 2 7 9 30 12 13
Source: Field data 2009
4.1.7 Negative impacts of tourism to the local community in the study areas
Majority (47%) of respondents in the entire study areas were very sensitive about the issue of land being given to investors and being restricted to use some parts of NCA for grazing. They are not allowed to graze their herds in the nearby areas given to investors and this has drawn some negative attitudes among the local elders in the study sites since the grazing space is shrinking while the number of their herds is increasing. Other respondents (26%) urged that tourism has eroded their culture through immoral behaviors, young warriors leave herds unattended and stand by the roadside to be taken photographs and sells traditional jewelries to tourists, also (8%) of respondents urged that tourism has induced laziness and begging behaviors whereby local people (especially children and women) spent most of their time around lodges waiting for tourists to take photographs, the least of respondents (3%) said that young men have become drunkards because of the income they accrue from
tourism which they spend for boozing.
Table 5 shows the negative impacts of tourism to the local community in the study area (n=90)
S/n Tourism impacts Village name Total
Oloirobi
(n= 30) Irkeepusi
(n=30) Nainokanoka (n=30) (n=90)
N % N % N % N %
1 Erosion of culture 9 30 9 30 5 16.7 23 26
2 Restriction on using some parts of NCA for grazing 16 53.3 14 47 11 36.7 42 47
3 Environmental destruction 3 10 4 13 4 13.3 11 12
4 Laziness and begging behaviors 2 6.7 3 10 2 6.7 7 8
5 Alcoholism and drug abuse 0 0 0 0 3 10 3 3
6 All the above 0 0 0 0 5 16.7 5 5
Source: Field data 2009
4.2 DISCUSSION
4.2.1 Demographic characteristics of local community in the study area
The mode of life of Maasai is pastoralism. However different socio-economic activities are practice in the area as alternative source of livelihoods. The study undertaken in Oloirobi, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka discloses that the inhabitants of the area were Maasai. Males (56%) were interviewed and women (44%) were interviewed. Males' have shown a bigger percentage compared to women because, in the Maasai traditions and customs, women have heaps of responsibilities and activities to perform in their daily routine such as attending herds, fuel-wood collection, walking long distances to fetch water and taking care of children. In a broad comprehending, this is an overwhelming task to be done daily by an individual working alone. Some men have more than one wife which sometimes ease the work load in the family, therefore, the more wives in one boma the easier the task or responsibilities will be.
The major responsibilities of men are to dispatch and allocate herds to areas with sufficient grasses. Men remain available at the boma and the nearby bars boozing after having dispatched their herds to grazing areas. On my observation, about three-quarters of the work in the family is done by women and this could have been a good reason to have a small percentage of women in the sampled areas.
The age structure of people in the study area advocates that the adults aged 36-49 followed by 26-35 years were regularly interviewed (refer table1). The reason behind this phenomenon is that, Maasai settings are scattered and most of the people in this age structure are strong enough to walk long distances in order to access other social amenities such as cultural bomas.
The findings unveil that 37% of the local community interviewed in the entire study areas did not attend any form of education. However, only few people have attended various forms of education (primary 31%, secondary 22%, and 10% colleges). These findings unveil that the level of illiteracy in the three sampled areas is medium (Fig 1). Low levels of education will have implications to the local community in acquiring jobs to the nearby lodges such as SOPA lodge, CC Africa lodge, Ngorongoro Wildlife and Serena loge. Similar study by Kokel (2007) revealed that the most common job given to local people was security guard and lodge operators remarked that guard jobs are particularly attractive to young Maasai men because they are accustomed to guarding their livestock. The Conservation Corporation Africa (Crater lodge) out of 150 workers, 13 (8.7%) were Maasai from the local area, of which only one is in the management level (Security administrator), eight are employed as security
guards, and the remaining are waiters and gardeners. The last three do not require skills/training and they are the lowest paid jobs. Low levels of employment in other departments were associated with the low educational attainment of people living in the area. Others reasons given include that Maasai are unreliable people, because they come and go as they must attend their livestock herds and families. Runyoro (2006) verified that more than a half of NCA population was not educated.
4.2.2 Socio-economic status of local community
The finding reveals that the majority of local community depends on pastoralism as a means for their livelihood followed by tourism activities which are used as a supplement for earning income. The local community did not mention there are other land-uses in the area such as farming but during the survey around villages of Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka, it was observed that farming is practiced in those villages, though on a minimum scale (Fig 2).
4.2.3 Major types of tourism practices
The scenic beauty of NCA has many reasons to welcome various tourism practices in the area. The most commonly practiced tourism activities occurring in the NCA were cultural visits (59%), walking safaris (18%), wildlife and photographing safaris (8%), while 14% of the respondents said both cultural visits and walking safaris.
4.2.4 Wildlife-related tourism and photographing
The wildlife described above has for many years drawn tourism to the Ngorongoro area, which has thus supplied much of the funding of the NCAA for employment, maintenance, and conservation projects. This tourism has been the backbone of the NCA thereby justifying a strong focus on wildlife conservation in the area. Most visitors are primarily visiting protected areas to see wildlife and enjoy the natural ecosystems, while other activities such as cultural visits are just supplemental to tourists. Visitors may opt to experience the culture of the local community after they have finished with their ultimate goal of visiting their tour destination.
4.2.5 Walking safaris
The NCAA has diversified tourist activities to be practiced in the area, among these activities is walking safaris which are primarily friendly to the environment and allow the indigenous residents to participate directly in tourism by providing services such guiding and hiring donkeys for carrying tourists' luggage and camping equipments to various walking destinations in the NCAA. The money accrued from guiding and from renting donkeys goes directly to the individuals offering the service.
Plate 1: A walk safari guided by a Maasai warrior, Field photo, 2009
4.3 Local community participation in various tourism practices
4.3.1 Cultural bomas
Alongside the Ngorongoro-Serengeti and Ngorongoro-Nainokanoka roads are various cultural bomas serving their administrative wards (Oloirobi, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka). The village government leaders are an essential element in selecting cultural bomas members who will stay in the cultural boma for one consecutive year basing on the poverty level of an individual and willingness to join the cultural boma as member. The levels of poverty considered are those households with fewer than 10 livestock (unit per household). Maasai depend much on their livestock as a source of livelihood.
Plate 2: Maasai gathering at the cultural boma, Field photo, 2009
The members swap residency of the bomas for one year, after the village government in their respective villages selects another group; this is done purposely to allow other individuals who are residents within the village to join and get benefits through cultural dance performance and selling of souvenirs as a supplement earnings. The research finding unveils that nearly everyone in the study sites is involved in selling souvenirs, especially at Irkeepusi whereby 73% of the respondents are involved in selling of souvenirs to tourists. The reason is that Irkeepusi doesn't have many resources like other villages and the SOPA lodge and other two tented camps are the only tourist facilities adjoining the village and which could take tourists to experience the cultural performance in the village (Fig 3).
Oloirobi cultural boma seems to have a balanced heterogeneous of activities such as selling of souvenirs (40%), dances (30%), hiring donkeys and guide tourists on walking safaris (17%) and employment in the lodges as security guards (13%). Oloirobi cultural boma is in a good locale of Seneto descending gate into the crater and Ngorongoro-Serengeti road which act as stop-over for the tourist traffic to and from Serengeti national park. Nainokanoka village neither makes much in cultural dance (23%) nor selling of souvenirs (13%) to the nearby tourists tented camps. Besides these incentives, the village is gifted with a stunning beauty of the landscape and physical resources such as astonishing waterfalls of Olmoti crater, Embakaai crater and the famous Oldonyo Lengai which attracts a number of tourists to experience the nature through a guided walking tour done by the local residents (Fig 3).
The local residents (53%) are employed through hiring donkeys for carrying luggage (Fig 3). Each cultural boma had 2 elderly men who function as advisors and handling of complaints among members of the bomas and ensuring proper collection and allocation of the entry fees collected from the visitors. Whilst in the boma, the members are obliged to implement various functions such as dancing, singing, taking tourists to have a look in the huts and selling artifacts such as traditional jewelry to tourists. Customarily, Maasai women do all their beadwork a part of their traditions and this is what caused them to become good designers, makers and decorators of jewelries. In addition, cultural dance performance exposes tourists to other traditional facets of Maasai lifestyle such as women beading and warriors making fire by the use of dried sticks.
STRUCTURE OF CULTURAL BOMAS
DS
Figure 5: Cultural boma organizational structure
Figure 5, shows the overall responsibility of the chairman of CB is to settle disputes among members of the CB and ensure that all rules and regulations of the CB are adhered by the cultural boma members. He has to ensure that revenue is properly collected through entry fees, while the secretary's duties are to record all vehicles visiting the CB and collect all entry fees. Other members of the CB are there to perform cultural dances for every tourist vehicle that visits the boma. Every woman in the CB has her own bead work to sell to tourists as a supplement. Educated young men in the village are given opportunities by CB leaders to give talks and interpretations about Maasai culture to tourists.
The authorized entrance fee is USD$20 per vehicle but this varies according to CBs since some cultural bomas like Irkeepusi are forced to charge USD$10 per tourist vehicle due to corrupt behaviors of some tour guides who demands commission for bringing tourist in the CB and therefore this has brought variations on revenue collections for CBs (Zachariah, per.comm., 3rd may, 2009; 17:38)
The cultural tenants and the village governments sit together at the end of each month to see how much they have earned and discuss its applications. The CB leaders together with village leaders may opt to use some amount of the money accrued for repairing water points as well as building classroom and pay school fees for secondary school children. The sum left to the boma is used for managing the cultural bomas such as buying water especially during dry season, paying equal monthly allowances to the members, medication to the members, purchasing food and livestock for cultural boma members since the majority of them are poor and the reason of them being there is to be able to benefit through restocking and veterinary services.
In general, cultural bomas serve as a means of alleviating poverty among the local community whose livelihoods depend on livestock keeping. Since the number of livestock is at a low level to other households, CB serves as incentives for poor communities to accrue benefits from tourism through selling of souvenirs and performing cultural dances whereby the money they accrue is used to purchase livestock and sending children to school.
4.3.2 Hiring donkeys and guiding tourists on walking safaris
The local residents (Maasai) in the study areas mostly use donkeys as their major source transportation such as water, food and other loads for their domestic use but due to the scarcity of resources and the needs to access their livelihood, the local communities have diversified the uses of their resources so as to cater their social needs through hiring donkeys for carrying tourist luggages in various tourists walking safaris destination such as Nainokanoka-Embakaai and Lake Natron and Oloirobi-Olbalbal-Olkarien gorge and many other walking safaris in the NCA (Fig 3).
Maasai have in-depth knowledge about their culture, nature of their environment on which they dwell and how to interact in harmony with wildlife and ecosystems. This long experience of the nature and wildlife has made them to be used by tour companies as nature walk guides to take tourist into various walking destinations.
4.3.3 Security guards
On the crater rim of the NCA, there are luxury lodges namely Serena, CC Africa, SOPA and Wildlife lodges. Also there are several tented luxury camps which are temporarily escalated in the area. Local residents (Maasai) are employed in the named tourist facilities as security guards. 13% and 10% of the respondent at Oloirobi and Nainokanoka are employed as security guards in the aforementioned tourist facilities (fig 3). The level of education of the respondents in the sampled area is a key factor for the local residents to be employed as security guards since (37%) have not gone to school (fig 1). In supporting this reason Kokel (2007) revealed that the most common job given to local people was security guard, and that lodge operators remarked that guard jobs are particularly attractive to young Maasai men because they are accustomed in guarding their livestock. The Conservation Corporation Africa (Crater lodge) out of 150 workers, 13 (8.7%) were Maasai from local area, of which
only one is in the management level (Security administrator), eight are employed as security guards, and the remaining are waiters and gardeners. The last three do not require skills/training and they are the lowest paid jobs. Low level of employment in other departments was associated with low education level. Others reasons given include that Maasai are unreliable people, because they come and go as they must attend their livestock herds and families. Runyoro (2006) verified that more than a half of NCA population was not educated.
4.3.4 Pastoral Council and Local Services
It is indispensable, however, that the Maasai have direct involvement in tourism either through employment or the allotment of generated funds back to the local residents, who have endured many restrictions due to conservation of wildlife. The interests of the Maasai are voiced by Pastoral Council which was created in 1994 to advise the NCAA Boards of Directors.
As of 2007/08, the NCAA generated over 40 billion Tsh and 1.2 billion (Tanzanian Shillings) was allocated to the Pastoral Council for pastoralist development in the NCA (Loserian, per. Comm., 1st may, 2009; 11:04 a.m). This figure is approximately 10% of the tourism-derived revenue of the NCAA, however pastoralists feel this allotment is insufficient. Lack of commitment of the NCAA to development projects for the Maasai may also contribute to this disgruntlement. If funds allotted are not utilized in such a way that will produce utmost benefits, they will be seen as insufficient. NCAA staffs that have greater knowledge of development projects and how to achieve successful improvements may be able to better utilize the funds that are provided to the Maasai, thereby signifying that such allotments are useful to the community.
As of 2005/06 Pastoral Council built Embarwai Secondary School which is worth more than 100 million Tsh, renovation of several primary schools classrooms such as Nainokanoka, Irkeepusi which worth a sum of 20 million Tsh and construction of health centers such as Mokilal health center, Bulati and Ilmisigiyo dispensaries. Currently, NCA through PC is sponsoring 557 students to secondary and higher learning institutions such as various colleges and Universities levels. Also PC allocated 100 million Tsh which was used in all stages of undertaking EIA for Nainokanoka primary school. Veterinary services is also given to pastoralist such as ECF which is free of charge but anthrax vaccine is charged to pastoralist base on the original cost bought (Loserian, per. Comm., 1st may, 2009; 11:04 a.m).
Figure 6: Liaison between the NCAA and the Local residents
This figure is a communication model depicting how do NCA communicates/ sending and receives information from the local community though Pastoral Council.
4.4 IMPACTS OF TOURISM TO THE LOCAL COMMUNITY
Impacts of tourism can be categorized in positive and negative sides to the local communities, which always have to be considered by advocates of tourism perspectives. Socially tourism has a great influence on the host societies. Tourism can be both a source of international amity, tranquility and compassionate or a destroyer of indigenous cultures, a source of ecological destruction, an assault of people's privacy, dignity, and authenticity. While presenting a culture to tourists may help preserve the culture, it can also dilute or even destroy it. The point is to promote tourism in the region so that it would both give incomes and create respect for the local tradition and culture
4.4.1 Positive impacts of tourism
The research findings show that tourism benefits the local community in various ways, which helps to sustain their livelihood.
4.4.2 Provision of markets for the local products
Maasai women are well known traditionally as designers and decorators of beadwork (traditional jewelry). Due to their ability to design various bead-products which is currently used in various festivals' Maasai beaded-type of dress is now commonly used by non-Maasai speakers on their weddings. A large number (46%) of respondents in the entire study areas said that tourism has played an immense role in providing markets for their handmade artifacts which are sold to tourists and lodges. The earnings from selling handcrafts go directly to the individual rendered the service without fleeting on the hands of middlemen (table 3).
4.4.3 Supports education for destitute families through PC
The sum of 10% of total tourism-derived revenue collected by NCAA is allocated to the local community which is used to foster social developments in six wards of the NCA. PC is the legal institution which interlinks the NCA and the inhabitants of the area and it oversees the allotment given by NCAA to foster social development in the area. Sum given is also used for sponsoring children from destitute families to school of which 557 students are sponsored at secondary, college and universities levels (Table 3)
4.4.4 Employment opportunities
About 16% of the respondents in the sampled areas were employed in tourism activities such as cultural dance performance, security guard, waiters in the lodges and tented camps (fig 3). Some individuals who are educated and fluent in English are employed by tour companies and lodges as guides on walking safaris. The Maasai provide walking tours within the NCA which cover areas around the cultural bomas and outside the NCA such as Lake Natron and Oldoinyo Lengai. This is an excellent enterprise for the Maasai warriors, as they are highly knowledgeable of the wildlife and how to track such animals. Likewise, tourists are tickled by the idea of walking amongst such exotic wildlife and such an experience beyond doubt which will be something to remember or family rendering such services.
4.4.5 Revenue collection from tented and mobile camps in the villages land
There are several tented and mobile camps which adjoin with the village land. Tented camps are luxurious ones which owned by individual tour operators companies such as Thomson, Wild-Frontiers, and A&K Safaris. Also there various mobile camping sites which are used as stop-over by on walking tourist companies. The 50% of the total sum collected from the aforementioned facilities goes to PC which in turn distributes equally to the six wards for the community development projects (Box 1).
4.4.6 Development of social services
Tourism has improved the living standard of the local community in terms of housing especially to destitute families who's initially incapable of taking two meals per day, but since the establishment of CB these families were able to send their children to school, purchase clothing and restocking the number of livestock which they didn't have before. Tourism has made infrastructure available at the study areas such as roads, clinics and schools. Currently, Ngorongoro-Embakaai road is under construction which initially was really bad. Apparently, the Maasai are running several entrepreneurs such as retail shops, bars and local restaurants which enable them to diversify their sources of income (Box1).
Generally tourism benefits have significantly outweighed the costs. It has enhanced social contacts between tourists and local people which resulted in mutual appreciation, understanding, acceptance, awareness, learning, family bonding respect, and liking. Residents are educated about the outside world through interaction, while visitors significantly learn about a distinctive culture. Local communities are benefited through contribution by tourism to the improvement of the social infrastructure like schools, health care institutions, entrepreneurs, and so on. Besides, if local culture is part of the base for attracting tourists to the area, it helps to preserve the local traditions and increase marketing for the local products such as beadwork which benefit poor artisans. The benefits and improvement of tourism in the area will improve the living standards of local community which in turn preserves the environment/resources from destruction. The phenomena occurring here is that if
the local community will directly benefit from tourism then the level of dependency on natural resources such as agriculture will be reduced. In this context economic and social impacts on the local community depend on how much of the income generated from tourism go directly to the host communities. In most all-inclusive package allotment of tourism-derived income which is given by NCA to the local community through PC is used for community development. But the local people believed that all the social development is done by the government and in concurrence with their own efforts because they are not informed as to how the allotment of revenue allocated to them is used for. On the other hand the majority of local residents are not employed and this will prevent them from reaping the benefit of their presence.
4.5 Negative impacts of tourism to the local community
Tourism has the power to affect cultural change to the host community. The successful development and level of dependency in tourism can lead to numerous negative impacts to the host community and biodiversity. Among these are, habituation of wild animals, conflicts, Tourism that encourages some immoral behaviors of some people, tourism that is the reason of some youngsters misbehaving, tourism that has induced laziness, prostitution, alcoholism and drug abuse, shrinkage of pastoralist land and restriction to use some parts of NCA for livestock grazing, spiritual and ritual functions.
4.5.1 Restriction of Maasai pastoralist on uses some parts of NCA for livestock grazing, spiritual and ritual functions.
The major grievance of the local community in the entire study area was the restriction of pastoralists on uses some parts of NCA for livestock grazing, spiritual and ritual functions which has resulted in bitterness to the local community towards the NCA. These days, the Maasai are obliged to apply for a permit to get their livestock in the crater for salt lick which is sometimes delays or even not granted such permit. Traditionally, Maasai use various herbs as traditional medicine to prevent or curing diseases but they have places where they go occasionally to undertake such herbs (Olpul) especially when the rain stops. It is apparent that, the NCA has restricted the Maasai to use such areas for their spiritual and ritual function.
The pastoralists, namely Maasai, were very unhappy about the areas given by the NCA to investors for construction of tourists facilities such as lodges. These areas have been used by the pastoralists to graze their livestock and they claimed that they are restricted to graze their herds into those premises by the owners of the lodges and tented camps.
4.5.2 Conflicts between local residents and lodge owners
There are two major streams between Irkeepusi and SOPA lodge that enters into the caldera from the northeastern edge of the caldera. The first stream, Olchorok-onyokie, originates in the Olosirwa Highlands and is only a transient source of water. The second stream is Lemala. The flow of this stream depends greatly on the seasonal rains. During the dry season the water flow of the two streams decreases which is extensively used by the adjacent village (Irkeepusi) and SOPA lodge. Due to the scarcity of water in the dry season the two stakeholders compete over the water whereby SOPA lodge block the stream so as to make a pond which will accumulate enough water to be pumped for the lodge's uses. Likewise the local communities do the same thing or destroy the blocked stream to allow the water to flow and reach their livestock. Another conflict is the withdrawal of a tender for meat supply by SOPA lodge which initially was catered by Irkeepusi and now the same service has been given to
Oloirobi village which is quite far from Irkeepusi.
4.5.3 Change of local community behaviors
Regardless of the numerous benefits accrued by the local communities from cultural bomas, the study observed several cultural impacts which are associated with tourism activities. Customarily, the Maasai used to put on traditional attires wherever they go as their identity but it is commonly now to see warriors at the villages dressing in western style and smoking cigarettes in the public. This was observed at Irkimba, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka. Maasai young men (warriors) have many responsibilities in the society such as looking and taking care of their livestock but their behaviors have changed considerably since they leave herds unattended and stand by the road to be taken photographs by the tourists which in turn get paid little or nothing.
4.5.4 Changes in consumption
The income accrued from tourism activities in the walking safaris and cultural bomas has something to do with changes in the consumption mold of both young men (warriors) and elders in particular who are associated in such tourism activities. Instead of purchasing livestock and taking care of their families, men are spending such sum for purchasing alcohol at Irkimba, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka sub-towns. Alcoholism is associated with emergent relationships with outside marriage which introduce sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS infections to the local communities. The traditional elders and leaders should cooperatively reform the corroding culture through educating the whole society especially youth to comprehend the significance of nurturing and preserving the authentic Maasai customs and ethnicity. Not everything from western culture is worth taking, as some things are constructive and others are destructive.
4.5.5 Prostitution with allied member of the Cultural bomas
Cultural bomas are composed of men and women of all age groups. The members are exposed to promiscuous behaviors since they stay for one consecutive year and they do not go in the CB with their wives/husbands or partners and therefore the can develop sexual affiliation at the time of staying at the CB. One of the residents at Irkeepusi village witnessed a Maasai woman who developed a sexual relationship with the tour drivers. Similar observation by Kokel (2007) was observed at the nearby sub-town of Irkimba; one individual remarked that ''some Maasai women from the nearby village have developed sexual relationships with tour drivers''. Traditionally, Maasai society regarded sexual relationship with an outsider (non-Maasai) as a dirty and unethical practice. Commercial sex with tourist drivers coupled with high rate of youth going to big cities like Arusha, Mwanza and Dar es Salaam in search for security jobs may cause high rates of HIV/AIDS infections because of failure to take
protective measures.
A question here is what to be done in order to avoid or get rid of such behaviors in CB. The local/village government which is responsible in selecting people to stay at the CB for boma for the duration of one year could send individuals together with their wives or husbands. If it happened that a husband has more that on wife then the husband should be allowed to visit other of the wives on weekends. This will help in reducing such promiscuous behaviors.
4.5.6 Laziness and begging behaviors
The development of tourism activities and facilities such as lodges in the study areas has affected laziness and begging behaviors in the local community such as asking money from tourists. These behaviors were observed while undertaking the research in the named study areas. One of the residents at Irkeepusi village which is adjacent to SOPA Lodge mentioned that local community members, especially women and children, leave their homestead (from morning to evening) to go to SOPA Lodge to wait for tourist to buy their handcrafts. In addition, the SOPA staffs sells food left by tourists to the local community at a low price. Young children take left-overs thrown in the garbage pit. This is a disgusting behavior to the community seeing SOPA staff entertaining such behaviors to their people. The local community should put strict codes to their families from such habituation and SOPA Lodge staff should not entertain such behaviors and they should have an inner feeling within themselves,
that how could feel if they will be treated the same way?
4.6 CHALLENGES FACING TOURISM
Regardless of the presence of cultural bomas for tourists to interact with locals' residents and restrictions made to people outside these centers to austerely not to undertake any commercial earnings along the road, the problem still carries on. Maasai youth and women stand alongside the road to sell their pictures and jewelries to passing tourist traffic. This approach is sort of competing with the established cultural bomas and not paying since the tourist can still get Maasai photographs and purchase handcrafts without going to CB. This business is sort of strenuous to the local community for example, they have to dance and sing for every tourist vehicle that enters to the CB. Another, culturally disruptive activity associated with tourism was the dancing group, consisting of young Maasai warriors and ladies (unmarried) hired by luxurious tourism lodges and tented camp such as SOPA, Serena and Conservation Corporation Africa (CCA) lodge to dance for the visitors in the
evening. The money accrued from such activities is very little to sustain their livelihood and to compare with time devoted on dancing and singing. Similar study by Kokel (2007) observed that each individual in the group receives TZS 1500 to 2000 for the 4 hours dance and return home at midnight. This problem is however tricky to parents because of the economic contribution of these dances family. Expressing dissatisfaction with the activity an elderly woman said. ''It's bad seeing our children coming at midnight, sometimes on foot from Crater lodge and with little shillings but we can't stop them, because we need money to buy food for them'' The above expression shows that people are economically forced to accept the offer.
4.6.1 Poor communication skills
Based on the research findings, the majority of local residents did not have any formal education and this creates a barrier to communication between the local residents and foreigners thus limiting interaction. This does not only makes selling handicrafts more complex, but it also confines the two groups' aptitude to interact and hampers their capability to learn about each other, aside from the typical tourists' dealings. In the bomas, none of the local guides could speak other foreign languages other than limited English. The drawbacks attached with poor communication with tourists may have helped the Maasai people to see the value of sending their
children to school. The establishment of kindergarten schools at Irkeepusi and Oloirobi could be an indicator. In general there is a need for CB to allocate the sum of the income they generate to hire a teacher who could teach them if they were to communicate with their customers and make benefits. This could not only help them to communicate their business issues but also it can form a long-term friendship with their customers who may lead to various benefits such as scholarship and many more.
4.6.2 Market Competition
Along Mto-Wa-Mbu-Ngorongoro road there are numerous curios shops which sell different quality artifacts than those of cultural bomas. Different artifacts in the markets such as T-shirts and curios diversify the income but in cultural bomas only beads are sold. This might have been caused by the lack experience in entrepreneurship skills in the business which hinders occupants of CB to fully benefit from tourism. Also lack of a standardized entrance fee per vehicle among CB has increased competition. A solution is to have a uniform entry fee to all CB that should be publicized to all stakeholders such as tour operators, ward authorities, NCAA and Pastoral Council Office, District Authority and Tanzania Tourist Board and austere codes and penalties should be taken to wrongdoers.
.6.3 Poor involvement of local community in tourism
As of 2007/2008, PC on behalf of the NCA local residents allotted 10% of tourism-derived revenue by NCAA which worth Tsh 1.2 billion for local community development projects, but the local community does not know how much is generated, how it has been used or managed or whether this is shared equitable. According to the research findings, the sum received from NCAA by PC has supported 557 Maasai students to Secondary, Colleges and Universities in and out of Tanzania; built Secondary schools, numerous Primary schools, water dips and supported women's enterprise groups (Loserian, pers. comm. , may 2009). Furthermore, local residents asserted to lack information on when and how NCAA plans, make decisions and financial process to NCA communities. The local residents have shown a grievance towards NCA management since the local residents' participation in decision-making has been a debatable case. According to (Olerrunguna 2009;pers. comm.) he urged that, "Our rights and participation
in decision-making were valued during the regime of the late conservator Mr.Chausi but these days all their stake in decision-making have been denied and devalued by the acting conservator Mr. Murunya". The designation of the area in 1959 was to serve as a multiple land use which will safeguard indigenous rights, natural resources both flora and fauna and promote tourism, Maasai legal rights over their land were denied since only two pillars have been successful promoted and that is tourism and conservation of natural resources while the indigenous have remained unprofitable from the resources which they have conserved for decades and centuries. Without the conservationism and environmental friendliness of the Maasai, conservation wouldn't have been in place or succeeded in the NCA, although the Maasai benefit very little of out of what they devoted and conserved. According to Shivji and Kapinga (1998), the NCAA wields jurisdiction over the territory of the NCA and over NCA
residents, functioning in many ways as a local government. With 41 members, 18 are selected from wards residents and the rest of who are members by virtue of holding other political officers such as the NCAA Conservator or Member of Parliament (Charnely, 2005). Pastoral Council provides an opportunity for NCAA board of directors and local residents to discuss socio-economic developmental issues. In order for tourism initiatives to attain the set objectives, socio-political justice for local residents is primary.
4.7 Perceptions of the local community towards tourism
The research finding revealed that the local community had positive and negative perceptions toward tourism activities practiced in the NCA, although the positive impacts tend to outweigh the negative.
4.7.1 Economic dependency on tourism
From the perspective of local community who have been or currently are employed/involved in the tourism industry, unveiled that there is a positive relationship of tourism to their livelihood. There is immense significant of support for tourism to those who were more dependent on tourism and they were more positive about tourism. The majority (41%) of local community interviewed depends in tourism activities as a supplement for living. This level of dependence has made the local community to rank tourism as main source of income generation.
4.7.2 Personal benefits of tourism
The local communities who earned income directly without passing on the hands of middlemen were the best predictors of perceptions of positive impacts. Most of them disclosed that tourism has improved their living standard and their children have had access to formal education.
4.7.3 Respondent Demographics
Most of the young men and women's perceptions were associated with higher rating of positive impacts and low rating of negative impact of tourism while older residents were less positive about tourism and rated higher negative impact than positive impacts of tourism. The reason behind this phenomenon is that Maasai participate in various tourism activities such as guiding tourists on walking safaris to various destinations and sometimes participate in selling souvenirs or performing cultural dances in the cultural bomas and lodges likewise women do participate in selling of souvenirs and dancing. This phenomenon is divergent to old residents since they have little or no participation in tourism activities because of their old age which inhibit them to undertake the same activity done by the warriors.
4.7.4 Community attachment on tourism
People who had lived longer in the community were less positive about some types of tourism activities in the area such as taking of photographs by tourists without their will, lack of local residents' participation in decision-making. The local community had negative perceptions towards current management of NCA which doesn't involve them to voice their rights.
It seems the majority of the local community is positive about tourism, provided certain controls have to be in place to mitigate any adverse effects, be it personal or environmental. It is important to involve the local community in the tourism planning process and get fully benefited from such industry without passing the benefits on the hands of middlemen. Local community could have their say with regards to what they wanted to see result as positive impacts of tourism, and indeed what they did not want to see result of negative impacts of tourism. It is positive to see the community working together with the NCA management for future enhancement and sustainable tourism in the NCA. The positive relationship won't only serve as a means for future sustainability of tourism but it will serve as a conservation tool.
4.7.5 Opinion of local community towards tourism and NCA management
The majority of the local community said that they are directly affected by tourism activities and therefore they have to be involved in decision-making and to fully benefit from tourism. Furthermore, they claimed that there shouldn't be restrictions to take their herd in the crater for salt licks, they should be granted free access in the crater without applying permit to the NCA management which sometimes delays and hinder to take their livestock for salt licking on time.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSION
Tourism has been able to benefit local communities and to be socially and culturally sustainable. It also fosters environmental conservation, cross-cultural interaction, and appreciation. Economic benefits from tourism are expected to motivate local people to support conservation. However, the local community's perception of tourism activities should also be considered. These include the positive and negative tourism impacts on the local community.
Benefits to local people can be increased if there is a fairer distribution of income to local people, and this will improve local perceptions of tourism. Better communication between local communities, tourism operators and the NCA management would help to avoid misunderstandings and bad feelings, and local people should be fully involved in decision-making on projects which can affect them. The NCA should respect and protect the interests and rights and privileges of local residents. Traditional culture and ethics are being eroded by modern ideas and lifestyles, and they should be preserved for the sake of Maasai future generations as well as to provide a cultural experience for visitors which do not affect the culture in a negative way.
Long term planning in tourism is associated with the reactions of local residents to it. Tourism can develop and grow when local residents have a positive attitude toward it and when they see their role in the process of the tourism development. At the point when a tourism destination is born, the quality of the life of the local residents goes through radical changes, which are not necessarily negative. The pollution of environmental resources is possible. Moreover, tourism brings changes that affect traditional way of life, family relations, and the nature of the functioning of local structures. When these limits are exceeded, local residents develop negative attitudes towards tourism. When negative attitudes become beliefs, tourism development obstacles appear.
Here is a figure which shows the paradigm between people, resources, and tourism in successful tourism: each makes a positive input to the others.
Figure 7: shows the three important elements of co-interaction which will enhance the long-term success of sustainable tourism.
All the three elements in this model are in co-interaction. Local communities use the natural resources but they also protect them. Tourists come to enjoy the nature and get knowledge about it, but they also can pollute and destroy it, or on the other hand they help to protect it by drawing attention to exceptional natural resources in the area. Local communities affect tourists by giving them knowledge of their culture and way of life. Tourists' impact on the local community can be economic by generating income, developing resources, sharing knowledge and experience. Sponsorship brings about education and awareness to local people of their natural resources, etc. It is always paramount to bear in mind this co-interaction whenever a tourist destination is developed.
Generally, it is a great challenge to make a gainful business involving tourism without some negative impacts to the local communities. It is possible for the local tourism industry to cooperate with other stakeholders industries such as tour companies and lodges to bring benefits to local businesses. The way forward to achieve this is to understand the needs and desires of the host community.
5.2 RECCOMMENDATIONS
The designation of NCAA was to serve as a multiple land use area: That is wildlife protection of flora and fauna, safeguarding the indigenous (Maasai) rights, and the promotion of tourism. But only two pillars have been implemented successfully, namely wildlife protection and tourism promotion. Indigenous rights have been neglected and left behind and their involvement in decision-making has been controversial. The local community was restricted to access their ritual and spiritual areas and also very little benefits is allocated to them. Such success of protecting and conserving wildlife isn't the due alone to the input of NCA, but it has come into success in collaboration with the Maasai indigenous to the area that have lived there in harmony and amalgamated with wildlife for decades and centuries. Therefore, if tourism in the NCA is to safeguard indigenous rights and contribute to socio-economic development and improve the livelihood among the NCA residents and lend a hand in
the promotion of conservation, there are significant issues and concerns that need to be addressed.
∑ Empowerment local residents is of vital for ensuring successful community tourism projects. Local people should be empowered to make decision on what aspect of traditions can be publicly shared; plan on what should take place on land, and set direct partnerships with tour operators to develop tourism business enterprises.
∑ Tourism-derived revenue collected from walking safaris should be given directly to villages/wards rather that been given to PC and the local community should be given autonomy to utilize those revenues in village development projects. This will encourage positive perceptions of local community towards tourism and NCA at large.
∑ Involvement of local communities in decision-making and planning of any new projects to be initiated in their land. This will make local community willing partners in conservation and discard negative stereotype between the local people and NCA management. Involvement of local community will make them to feel that they are valued and their decision-making is of paramount imperative for the NCA.
∑ Proper disbursement of information to local community. The local community has to be informed of what the allotment of revenue given by NCA through PC has been used for. This is to know how much income is generated by NCA in order to determine whether the allotment which is given is equitable. PC has to give adequate information to all wards on how the money has been used and possibly this information has to be displayed publically in the notice board for those who can read and community meetings has to be seized for those who can read.
∑ NCAA should help the local community to improve the quality of their products through taking people in training so that they could produce quality products which will help them to compete with other market outside the NCA and at the country or international level.
∑ The NCA should discuss with the local community and reach consensus for constructing one or two community information center/cultural boma in the area and increase price from $20 to $50 per vehicle. This will control the mushrooming of cultural bomas which seems to be not beneficial to local community since the price varies from one CB to the other.
REFERENCES
Andriotis, K. (2005) Community groups' 'perceptions and preferences to tourism development. Evidence from Crete. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research.
Arhem, K(1985). Pastoral Man in the Garden of Eden: The Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Tanzania. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies (available at http//www.google.com).
Barrow, E. & Murphree, M.W. (2001) Community Conservation from Concepts to Practice. In: African wildlife and livelihoods; The promise and performance of community conservation.
Bell, R. H. V. (1984) Conservation and Wildlife Management In Africa. The Proceedings of The Workshorp Organized By The Us Peace Corps At Kasung National Park, Malawi.
Byers, Bruce A. (1996). Understanding and influencing Behaviors in Conservation and Natural Resource Management. African Biodiversity Series, No 4. Washington, D.C.: Biodiversity Support Program
Cernea M.M (1995); Putting People First; Sociological Variables in Rural Development
Charnley, (2005) Pastoralists, Tourists, and Wildlife: Challenges to Ecotourism in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Stanford, CA: Stanford Graduate School of Business case Number SI-46
Dilly's Roe, Nigel Leader-William, Barry Dalal-Clayton (1997) Take only photographs, live only foot prints
DSE (1995.) Seminar on sustainable tourism in protected areas system, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area)
Kokel, M., (2007) Alleviating poverty through ecotourism programmes in Ngorongoro Conservation Area -Tanzania: Prospects and Challenges
Leader- Williams Kayera J.A and Overton, G.L (1996); Community Based Conservation in Tanzania.IUCN Gland
Peter S (2008). : Sustainable development and Ecotourism United Nations Environment Programme
Shivji. I.G. and Kapinga (1998) The Maasai maintained "deemed rights of occupancy" in the NCA under the 1923 Land Ordinance.
Swanson (2007). Ngorongoro Conservation Areas: Spring of life. University of Pennsylvania pdf dwnl, Available at http//www.google.com (Accessed in March,2009)
United Republic of Tanzania (2005) Economic Survey http//www.tanzania.go.tz/economicsurvey2005/html (Accessed on 16th April 2009)
World Commission on Protected Areas (2002) Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas Guidelines for Planning and Management Paul F. J. Eagles, Stephen F. McCool and Christopher D. Haynes Adrian Phillips http://www.sidestore.com (Accessed in May 2009)
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Other results
Box1, Benefits of tourism to the local people
∑ Tourism has improved the living standard of local people
∑ Due to tourism, infrastructure at the study areas has been enhanced such as roads, hospitals, schools, and other social amenities
∑ Tourism increases the level of education at Oloirobi, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka
∑ Tourism creates opportunities for people at Oloirobi, Irkeepusi and Nainokanoka such as employment(15 local people are employed in Rhino lodge) and investment
∑ The three villages receives 50% of the income generated from camping sites adjacent to their premises such as tented and mobile camps. The income accrued is distributed equally to all wards through Pastoral Council.
∑ Local community have increased the number of herds
∑ Inter-cultural interactions
∑ Tourists show respect to local people culture and traditions
∑ Provision of veterinary services such as anthrax vaccine, East Cost Fever(E.C.F)
∑ Provision of food through Pastoral Council at a reasonable price(go downs)
∑ Provision of education (557 students are sponsored by NCA in different educational level through Pastoral council)
∑ Pastoral council receives 1.7 billion Tsh annually from NCA. to support community initiated projects
Source: Field data, 2009
Box 2, Cost of tourism to the local people
∑ Tourism encourages some immoral behaviors of some people
∑ Tourism is the reason of some youngsters misbehaving
∑ Tourism induced laziness
∑ Prostitution
∑ Conflicts between tourist facilities owners and local community
∑ Alcoholism
∑ Shrinkage of pastoralist land and restriction to use some parts of NCA for livestock grazing, spiritual and ritual functions
Source: Field data, 2009
Box 3, Perceptions of local people towards tourism activities
∑ Working in tourism during the high season is feasible, though prefer
having a more permanent job in another sector
∑ Tourists show respect to our culture and traditions, they are friendly and interactive
Box4, Opinions of the local people towards tourism in NCA
∑ Tourism is beneficial to us but we need to be involved fully in decision making as stakeholders who are primarily affected by tourism activities
∑ There should be a balance between tourism and pastoralism and therefore given equal opportunities to avoid conflicts.
Source: Field data, 2009
The table bellow indicates that the majority of people have an average of (21-30) number of livestock which rank 41%. This is an indicator that, the majority of local community still depending on pastoralism for their livelihood. However, this number of livestock per household is low to sustain the local people throughout the year when we consider some other natural calamities such as drought and diseases which normally encountered by pastoralists.
Number of livestock per household
S/N Village name Number of livestock per household
1-10 11-20 21-30 Above 31
N % N % N % N %
Oloirobi 3 10 4 13 15 50 8 27
Irkeepusi 2 7 6 20 10 33 12 40
Nainokanoka 6 20 3 10 12 40 9 30
Average total in % 12.3 14.3 41 32.3
Source; Field data, 2009
Appendix 2: Field photos
Plate 3, Field Photo for Oloirobi, Irkeepusi And Nainokanoka, 2009
FGD Souvenirs for sale at the Cultural boma, 2009
Focus group Discussion, Field photo, 2009 Irkeepusi Primary school, Field photo,2009
Key informants, field photo, 2009 Irkeepusi Cultural boma, field Photo, 2009
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